Symptoms Of Disorganized Schizophrenia Psychology Essay

Symptoms Of Disorganized Schizophrenia Psychology Essay Schizophrenia  is a severe mental disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations and physical agitation; which typically causes such patients to severely misjudge the distinction between reality and their imagination. Schizophrenias prevalence in the world was highlighted as 26th in the list of diseases, ranked according to their contribution to their overall burden to society as a whole according to a study done by Murray and Lopez, 1996. For example, it is estimated to have cost the NHS an outstanding  £4.7 billion in the UK during 2004/05 [25]. In addition in this essay I will discuss a range of elements, from what factors increase the susceptibility of inducing schizophrenia and the current treatments on offer that will help alleviate common symptoms. The disease itself has a broad influence on several other prominent factors, involving both the individuals themselves but also the global community, which will be later discussed, in regards to their social and economic co ntext. Schizophrenia is such an enormous problem since no permanent cure currently exists. Types of schizophrenia There are 3 specific classes of schizophrenia [2]: Paranoid schizophrenia Disorganized schizophrenia Catatonic schizophrenia Symptoms of paranoid schizophrenia The dominant feature of paranoid schizophrenia is excessive suspicion and delusions of being oppressed. Symptoms of disorganized schizophrenia Disorganized schizophrenia usually becomes visible at an earlier age in comparison to the other types of schizophrenia. Individuals with disorganized schizophrenia struggle with the responsibility of supporting themselves. Therefore may be incapable of fulfilling basics needs, for example, being able to feed themselves. The following includes additional symptoms of disorganized schizophrenia: Weakened ability to communicate Slurred speech Immature behaviour Expression of inappropriate feelings, in the wrong situation. Symptoms of catatonic schizophrenia The interference in movement summaries catatonic schizophrenia: This can either be a decline in motor neuron activity (stupor state) or a rise in motor neuron activity (excited state). Stuporous (a  state  of unresponsiveness) motor signs. Sudden stoppage of all intentional movement and dialogue. Excited motor signs.  Occasionally, schizophrenics may drastically change from a state of stupor to a state of extreme exhilaration. Throughout this hyperactive phase, they may illustrate rapid speech or uncontrollable movement and even act out in violence, either self-inflicting or to someone else Example of the Symptoms of Schizophrenia [6] The following summarises common symptoms that arise in schizophrenics: Hallucinations Sudden changes in behaviour Depression Delusions Loss of insight What causes schizophrenia? The cause for schizophrenia has been the subject of vigorous debate, with numerous elements being proposed, discounted or amended. In contrary to this, it has to this day not yet been diagnosed by scientists to be solely induced by one particular factor. It is however thought to be a result of a combination of elements, which differ in every patient. Recent studies have suggested that the following have been significant contributors consisting of a complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors, for example, prenatal development, genetics, psychology and neurobiology. [3] Genetic causes of schizophrenia Schizophrenia has a strong hereditary component which is shown to run in families, but no individual gene is accountable. It has been said that a combination of genes pose the potential to make people more susceptible to the disorder. In addition, people genetically predisposed to the condition have not always illustrated its symptoms, meaning that the biology of it will not guarantee having the condition. Studies imply that genes account for half (estimate) the risk of developing schizophrenia. Individuals with a parent or sibling who suffers from schizophrenia have a 10% chance of developing the illness, in comparison to the 1% chance of the general population. Identical twins who have precisely the same genetic make-up as one another, if one of the two siblings has schizophrenia, their twin has a 48% probability of developing it too. For example, Gottesman (1991) obtained data from the Maudsley twin register and then examined the records of 40 schizophrenics studies between 1948 and 1964.  Through statistical analysis he determined that 48% of the twins who were monozygotic (identical developed from one oocyte) happened to be concordant (when both have or both lack a given trait) and for dizygotic (not identical developed from two oocyte) only 16%.   This further demonstrates that schizophrenia is not solely genetic; otherwise the concordance for MZ twins would be 100%. Provided below is a table illustrating additional information regarding the risk of developing schizophrenia for different individuals [4]. Relatives with schizophrenia Chance of developing schizophrenia None 1 in 100 1 parent 1 in 10 1 identical twin (same genetic make-up) 1 in 2 1 non-identical twin (different genetic make-up) 1 in 80 Table 1: This table illustrates the risk of individuals developing schizophrenia if someone in their family has been diagnosed. Environmental causes of schizophrenia As discussed previously inherited genes make an individual greater exposed to schizophrenia and moreover environmental factors can too then act on this vulnerability to trigger the condition. In regards to the environmental aspects involved, on-going research is indicating the contribution of stress, either throughout pregnancy or at a further phase of life. High levels of stress activate schizophrenia by increasing the bodys manufacture of the steroid hormone cortisol. Cortisol normally controls the bodies fight or flight response, although long-term exposure can damage and reduce the number of nerve cells in the hippocampus, the brains primary memory centre. As a result theres a decline in the transmission of nerve impulses for memory recall, this damage results in memory loss and impaired learning, features associated with the mental disorder. Pregnancy where maternal stress is likely to be induced could possibly affect the development of the baby according to Gilmore Murrays study in 2006 [8] [23]. To determine whether prenatal stress alters neural, hormonal, and behavioural processes, in an experiment they carried out, pregnant rhesus monkeys were deliberately stressed frequently for 6 weeks of their pregnancy with various stimuli. Between 2-3 years of age, hippocampal volume, neurogenesis (generation of neurons), and cortisol levels were monitored in the offspring produced from both stressed and control pregnancies. Prenatal stress caused a reduced hippocampal volume and an inhibition of neurogenesis. These findings indicate that the prenatal environment can alter behaviour and affect the hippocampal structure of primates in a persistent manner. Furthermore if the mother happens to be anxious (stressed) while pregnant, there have been noticeable results suggesting reduced blood flow to the baby via the uterine arteries; blood vessels that supply nutrition and blood to the uterus. This could justify abnormalities in the development of the baby and the mothers high cortisol levels (a dominant stress hormone) could too pass onto the foetus. If adequate cortisol transports through the placenta from the mother to the foetus. This in turn could potentially affect the development of the brain and the future stress responses of the baby, thereby enhancing the risk of schizophrenia arising. Studies point to numerous stress-inducing environmental influences that may be related to schizophrenia, for example [22]: Inadequate oxygen levels during labour (due to prolonged labour or premature birth) Exposure to a virus during infancy e.g. T Gondi Drug abuse A relationship between marijuana use and the disorder has been suggested several years ago (Andreasson, Allebeck et al. 1987).   These conclusions have been validated by additional research.   Fundamentally, the deductions drawn from many of these reports were that marijuana use can induce psychosis.  Ã‚   For example, according to Thomas H, he stated the occurrence of psychotic symptoms amongst marijuana users in a random selection of volunteers from New Zealand. Fourteen percent of cannabis users described strange, unpleasant experiences such as hearing voices or becoming convinced that someone is trying to harm you or that you are being persecuted after consuming the substance. Such symptoms are frequent with schizophrenics too. [29] In addition Mathers DC conducted a study of patients residing in two London hospitals whose urine was investigated for the presence of cannabinoids (the active constituents of cannabis). They found a link between the presence of cannabinoids in urine and the disorder. This suggests a potential correlation and not entirely causual link, either that cannabis use increases the likely hood of being predisposed to a mental illness or that substance abuse is commonly adopted with post diagnosis [28]. The reliability of this data can be disputed even though it is a published study, a sample size made up of two individuals is notably small, especially when schizophrenia affects 1% of the global population, hence it may not be appropriate in statistical representation of the entire population because fewer risk factors can be taken into account to generate sound data, prove that a correlation exists and thus make any hypothesis meaningful. The cannabinoids found in cannabis, once consumed are thought to interfere with normal neural transmissions. The normal release of neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine and dopamine (chemicals that help transmit impulses) from post synaptic neurons are seen to be inhibited (Gill et al, 1970). In turn excitatory postsynaptic currents in neurons were dramatically reduced. If this process becomes perpetual prominent effects of cannabinoids include disruption of psychomotor behaviour (such as speech and coordination) and shortà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ term memory impairment [33].  In addition psychomotor retardation consists of several symptoms that have been acknowledged in schizophrenia. However there is miniscule evidence that such impairments are permanent stated by Manuel Morrens study in 2006. Abnormal brain structure Due to the progression in neuroimaging, technology now allows scientists to examine functions in living organisms and in particular brain structure. Investigations involving schizophrenics have identified irregularities in brain structure according to Johnstone (1976) [27]. Such as the expansion of the ventricles (fluid-filled cavities), the decline in size and metabolic activity in particular brain regions. These brain ventricles signify an insufficiency in the volume of brain matter. In addition evidence of abnormally low activity in the frontal lobe; the area of the brain accountable for higher order functioning including; speech and decision-making has too been gathered. Which could explain why schizophrenics experience slurred speech. Regardless of the evidence of brain abnormalities, it is doubtful that schizophrenia is caused by a single issue in any one area of the brain. Moreover microscopic studies of dead brain tissue in schizophrenics have also illustrated slight alterati ons in the distribution of brain cells. However these defects are not characteristic of  all  people with schizophrenia, neither do they happen  solely in people with the disorder. [7][8] This image is of 28-year-old identical twins, one with schizophrenia and the other well. Hence it clearly illustrates two points: (1) schizophrenia is a brain disease with measurable structural and functional abnormalities in the brain; and (2) it is not solely a genetic disease, and that other biological elements contribute in its etiology. C:UsersRahmanDocumentsSchizopherniaschizophrenia-brains-identical-twins.jpg Figure 1 MRI scans of 28-year-old identical male twins showing the enlarged brain ventricles in the twin with schizophrenia (right) compared to his well brother (left) Neurotransmitters Brain cells need messages to be transported between them; neurotransmitters are the chemicals that carry out this requirement. Neurotransmitters and schizophrenia have shown to demonstrate a relationship since medicines that adjust the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain are recognized to alleviate a few of the symptoms of schizophrenia. Therefore schizophrenia could possibly be triggered by an alteration in the level of the two neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine chemicals that help transmit nerve impulses from one nerve cell (neurone) to another across a synapse (gap between two neurones), investigations have suggested [7][8]. Lastly the antipsychotic drug chlorpromazine thought to reduce relapse time (suffer deterioration after a period of improvement), which too blocks dopamine-receptor complexes forming suggests that an imbalance of the two could possibly be the foundation of the problem. Genes In addition in 2006 a Gene linked to schizophrenia had been found, a University team from Edinburgh found people predisposed with what is called Neuregulin (gene) had a higher chance of developing similar psychotic symptoms. The longitudinal study followed a group of 200, of the same age and gender, for a period of 10 years. [9][10][11] This study could be deemed reliable to an extent, seeing as though 10 years is an extremely substantial amount of time, hence a vast amount of data could be collected to either support or disprove the theory. In addition by following individuals of the same age and gender, further risk factors that could influence the results were controlled. Meaning the data would be valid, because any results would be more likely to be influenced by genes alone. Neuregulin 3 is clearly one more gene to add to the few currently known to contribute to schizophrenia, says David Valle, director of the McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine at Hopkins. Pregnancy and birth complications The following circumstances increase the risk of the child developing schizophrenia later in life [8]: Exposure to a virus while in the womb Asphyxia (Lack of oxygen) during birth Malnutrition during pregnancy (Susser et al. 1996) How is schizophrenia treated? Due to the cause for schizophrenia still being undetermined, treatments target alleviating the symptoms. These include the use of both antipsychotic medication and various other psychosocial management techniques. Antipsychotic drugs assist in normalizing the biochemical imbalances that cause schizophrenia. Antipsychotic medications Medications used to treat schizophrenia are referred to as antipsychotics. Antipsychotics are dopamine antagonists they block receptors on the surface of neurons. How do antipsychotic drugs work? Neurons (nerve cells) carry electrical impulses through their branches. Neurons communicate chemically by sending out bursts of chemical signals (neurotransmitters NTs) into the synapse (space between neurons) and then sticking to receptors on receiving neuron. Receptors are shaped to fit with specific NTs and generate a new signal/change in the receiving cell. Molecules of antipsychotic drugs are deliberately shaped so that they stick to the dopamine receptors first; therefore preventing the binding of NTs so no signal goes through to the post-synaptic/receiving cell. [30] G:BlackBerrypicturesIMG00079-20130303-1521.jpg Figure 2 The picture above illustrates how the antipsychotic drug works by blocking the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron. The following include frequently used medicine [13]: Chlorpromazine C:UsersRahmanDocumentsSchizopherniaChlorpromazine 2D skeletal.png Figure 3 This picture illustrates the chemical composition of the antipsychotic Clozapine.Haloperidol Ondansetron Clozapine Clozapine as mentioned above is an effective drug utilized in treating psychotic symptoms, for example, hallucinations or long breaks with reality. Because antipsychotic drugs inhibit neurotransmitter and receptor complexes forming, such nerve impulses cannot be passed on through the neural pathway. In turn this prevents such thoughts from being processed by the CNS (central nervous system), including the brain and hence the patient doesnt encounter similar problems as before. However it too has its drawbacks, it can occasionally result in the loss of white blood cells which assist the immune system to fight off infection. As a result clozapine users require regular weekly blood tests in order to have their white blood cell count checked [26]. Moreover such a side effect can become an issue where health services are limited in availability, as well as the problem of being able to cope with the cost of blood tests and medicine, making treatment with clozapine demanding for a large majority of individuals. However clozapine is potentially valuable for those who have developed a resistance to alternative antipsychotic medication. What are the side effects? Further side effects may occur when schizophrenics begin taking their medication. Side effects of many antipsychotics include [14]: Tiredness Light-headedness Obscured vision Increased heart rate Inflammation Menstrual complications for women. One of the challenges with any form of medication is that a minority of individuals unable to tolerate the adverse side effects of the drug prescribed for their condition terminate its use into several months of their treatment. Furthermore in reference to a more serious medical note, persistent use (over several years) of antipsychotic drugs pose the risk of developing tardive dyskinesia (TD), a disorder categorised by involuntary movements. This may involve jerk movements of the limps (arms or legs) and certain other features of the body. However it only occurs in between 15-20% of all cases. The symptoms of TD are minor, to the extent where patients could possibly be unaware [13]. Its cause is supposed to be a result of prolonged inhibition of dopamine D2  receptors (a cell that dopamine binds to) which is thought to cause a surge in the quantity of D2  receptors in the striated section of the brain (regulates muscle contraction). This increase of D2  receptors enhances the chance of dopamine-receptor complexes forming, thereby leading to further impulsive muscle contraction. [34] Moreover typical antipsychotics can lead to severe obesity and alterations in a persons metabolism. This in turn can increase the possibility of diabetes and high cholesterol levels forming (therefore there is a need for doctors to regularly monitor a persons weight, glucose levels and liquid levels). Psychosocial Treatments (Alternative Treatment) Along with the more common psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia, for example, hallucinations, which antipsychotic drugs have demonstrated to alleviate. Patients are still left dealing with the behavioural difficulties of the condition. This treatment aims to ease psychological distress through a more personal and interactive process, rather than the use of medication. The following include methods in helping to treat these behavioural issues [5]: Individual/Group Psychotherapy consists of repeated scheduled talks between the patient(s) and a psychiatrist. Giving him/her the opportunity to discuss the difficulties that leave them feeling distressed in an intimate and safe environment. In turn the weight off having to deal with the problem alone can be removed, the psychiatrist can then provide an explanation for the suffering that is progressive that is, the patient understands something can be done to mend the situation. This leads them to conducting themselves in a healthier and active manner, whether it is thinking more positively or they learn how to maintain better relationships. This seems to be effective because the patient is given the self-belief that any improvements are down to their own merit. Family Education This involves teaching several coping techniques to families for the purpose of dealing more effectively with their ill relative. Relatives can be crucial tools when dealing with schizophrenics, with their support and guidance patients can find some form of normality and alleviate the effects of solitude, just one of the many symptoms of the condition. In general with the combination of medicinal and psychosocial treatment, patients quality of life of can be drastically improved. However dont be deceived, the treatment process for some individuals can be difficult to follow, in reference to drug side effects treatment may be discontinued. This is where relatives can be vital in assisting that patients do not relapse. C:UsersRahmanDocumentsSchizopherniapsychiatry-couch2.jpg Figure 4 this picture illustrates a comfortable environment, typically in a psychiatrics place of practice where the patient can discuss his feelings on topics that cause concern and thereby hopefully reduce his psychological suffering. This should improve his quality of life. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) ECT is scarcely implemented in the treatment of schizophrenia (e.g. exceptions may include when there is a high risk of suicide). The following describes how the treatment would typically be conducted [32]; The patient will have a pulse oximeter connected to them, in order to monitor blood oxygen levels. Electrodes will then be placed onto the recipients chest so that the electrical activity across the patients heart can be observed using an electrocardiogram (ECG) In addition an  electroencephalogram (EEG)  will too be simultaneously utilized to monitor brain activity The monitoring of blood pressure is imperative, so that any faults during the treatment can be identified immediately; hence a blood pressure cuff is positioned onto the recipients arm. Using a sharp hollow needle connected to a transparent tube, access to the blood vessel is obtained for the administration of drugs A sedated state is induced using the appropriate drugs to prevent erratic movement and a constant supply of oxygen is provided throughout the procedure. Next a bite block is placed in the patients mouth because the jaw tightens during the treatment and weakened teeth could break. Additional electrodes are placed onto the head; the electrical current is then applied through the scalp of the brain causing a seizure to occur. What the seizures are thought to do vary, suggestions include causing alterations in brain chemistry, especially in the balance of neurotransmitters, and hence the brain can function normally because nerve impulses are neither slowed down or too fast. An alternative theory suggests that ECT can stimulate the growth of new cells and nerve pathways in certain areas of the brain, as a resultà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ which can quickly inverse the symptoms of such an illness, the specifics yet remain unknown (Wahlund B   Von Rosen D, 2003). Evidence from randomised control trials (RCTs) have shown restricted success, lasting short term (Cochrane Schizophrenia Group, 1999). The typical side effects that arise seem to include; muscle aches, headaches and memory loss instantly after the procedure. Disadvantages of Psychosocial Treatments With any form of treatment, certain limitations will always follow; this includes that psychotherapy will naturally take a significantly longer span of time, in order for noticeable improvements to be seen in patients in comparison to drug therapy [24]. This is because psychotherapy very much depends on the use of the patients own mental experiences to bring about the desired changes, whereas drugs will have the desired effect regardless. Moreover in regards to the financial aspect of the treatment, it can too place a severe burden on health services to facilitate either group or individual therapy sessions at the tax payers expense, it has been estimated to cost society  £2 Billion in direct cost of treatment in 2004/05 (Mangalore R, Knapp M, 2007). In addition psychotherapy alone is not completely successful and effective in people with  a severe psychological state, so drugs can sometimes be the only form of treatment. Research into Stem Cell Treatment for Schizophrenia (Potential Treatment in the Future) Stem cells are unspecialized cells that hold the potential to differentiate into any type of cell found within the human body [19]. The National Institutes of Health states that stem cells have the remarkable potential to develop into many different cell types in the body during early life and growth. [15] Stem cells hold the potential of great breakthroughs in the science community, in this case the possibility of an effective cure being manufactured in the future. However since our current limitations with the research, for example, problems with deliberate cell differentiation and the undetermined cause for schizophrenia such research has been delayed not till another 50-100 years so our understanding of stem cells is at an adequate level. However there are ethical issues that would arise in treating schizophrenia with stem cell therapy once scientifically possible. For the predominant reason that the pluripotent stem cells needed for research are solely present in embryos and the extraction of these would result in its death. For those people who believe that life begins at conception, this may be perceived as murder, seeing as though a viable life had been forcefully refused and to destroy it is immoral [15]. Furthermore like any other new technology, because we have not had a vast amount of time to study it to gather sufficient information on its broad impact; it is completely unknown what the long-term effects of such an intrusion with nature could mean to society. Such as will patients grow an extra arm in 10 years from the point of its use? Lastly stem cells derived from embryos that are not a patients own may be identified as a foreign body, so may be rejected. Therefore stem cell therapy may not always be appro priate. Although in order to balance the argument, stem cell therapy could be substantially beneficial to our society, it could potentially mean a cure, where patients would no longer suffer from the condition after treatment, resulting in a better quality of life. It could therefore replace conventional types of treatment e.g. medicine that are prescribed on a regular/life time basis. Thereby removing the pain inflicted on peoples lives caused by side effects and limits they can place such as, not being able to work from being too tired but more importantly reducing the burden placed on society by schizophrenia, for example, the financial expense of producing drugs. Furthermore if the development of new drugs in this area are no longer as important, a by-product could mean fewer pressures to experiment on animals, which is a constituent of the drug development cycle. Hence animals would be subject to less brutality such experiments hold. With anything, the pros and cons must be weighted out , so that a decision suiting the majority is made. C:UsersRahmanDocumentsSchizopherniaStem cells.jpg Figure 5 This illustration depicts pluripotent stem cells ability to differentiate into a range of cells found in our bodies, for example, neurons. Modelling schizophrenia using human induced pluripotent stem cells Research carried out by Professor Fred Gage, an expert in genetics has successfully been able to induce pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) created from schizophrenic patients. Sages study published in the journal Nature (April 13, 2011) suggests both that neurons formed from such individuals made fewer links with each other in comparison to neurons found in non-sufferers of the condition. Such research will have a variety of beneficial impacts, including as stated by Gage [20][21]: With further research there is potential of possibly replacing such abnormal neurons related to the condition with healthy ones.This model not only affords us the opportunity to look at live neurons from schizophrenia patients and healthy individuals to understand more about the disease mechanism, but also to screen for drugs that may be effective in reversing it. C:UsersRahmanDocumentsSchizopherniastem cells from schizophrenics.jpg Figure 6 This picture illustrates the healthy neural pathway in the brain generated from schizophrenia patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells. The Cost of Schizophrenia to Society: Economical Implication Also, for the government, especially in the UK where health care is provided free of charge, people with schizophrenia can be a severe financial constraint. Because such patients suffer from numerous debilitating  symptoms, including depression and hallucinations. Doctors will prescribe medication in order to combat this, in this instance antidepressants (e.g. prozac) or antipsychotics of which both need to be paid for. This cost is financed by the tax payers, the problem doesnt stop there. With any drug, side effects are present as a result of its usage; doctors too prescribe further medicine to treat these symptoms. The domino effect of over scribing medicine leaves the country with an overwhelming financial cost. In regards to Mangalore and Knapps study in 2007 indirect societal costs for schizophrenia were estimated to once have had an expenditure of  £4.7 billion in the UK in 2004/05 [25]. According to Marwaha Johnsons journal published in 2004, it showed that amongst those with long-term mental health problems in particular schizophrenia, only 24% were employed [18]. As a result, in order for such people to maintain a standard of living, such as being able to purchase food and pay rent on their homes, they will usually claim an incapacity benefit entitling them to some money per week. This cost will be supplemented by the government once again, adding to the total financial burden left by mental disorder patients. Social Implication The improper treatment and dismissal of the symptoms of schizophrenia can be overwhelming for the patient and those surrounding him/her.  Examples of the possible effects of schizophrenia include the following: Suffering from schizophrenia can make being employed and retaining relationships immensely challenging, because such patients frequently suffer from relapses, typically involving hallucinations; whereby the patient claims to see things that arent really there. This can cause them to develop trust issues and communication problems, sometimes feeling that they are being persecuted by the individuals themselves. As a result, the patients keep themselves isolated, disregarding their support or even presence. This may ultimately lead to the loss of relationships, which can have a psychological toll on the family members too who care for the person, knowing that they may never truly embrace the same person again. In addition schizophrenics ar

British Literature Essay

This lesson is a continuation of the study of British literature and will focus on literature from the Neoclassical Period to today. This lesson is only an overview of some of the authors and literary works produced in England during a particular period. There are many other authors that made important contributions to the literature of this time period. The periods of British Literature are: Classical Period (1200 BC to 455 AD) Medieval Period (455 AD to 1485) Renaissance and the Commonwealth Period (1485 to 1660) Neoclassical Period (1660 to 1790) Romantic Period (1790 to 1830) Victorian Period (1832 to 1901) Edwardian Era (1901 to 1910) Modernism (1914 to 1945) Post-Modernism Period from 1945 to the present Neoclassical Period (1660-1790) The Enlightenment (also referred to as the Neoclassical Period or the Age of Reason) was based on the concept that people could find perfection and happiness through reason and knowledge. This essentially humanist vision was characterized by a resistance to religious authority. The Enlightenment began during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe and eventually spread to America. The Restoration, the Augustan Age, and the Age of Johnson were time periods that were included in the Enlightenment. Literature from the colonial period and the beginning of the revolutionary period in American literature developed during this time. Two prominent American authors of the era were Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine. During the Restoration, British monarch Charles II was restored to the throne (hence the name of the era), marking the decline of the Puritan influence on British literature. Writers of the Neoclassical Period John Dryden Dryden (1631-1700) was an English poet and dramatist. Some of his famous poems include â€Å"Astrea Redux,† â€Å"Absalom and Achitophel,† and â€Å"The Hind and the Panther. † He is also known for his play All for Love. Dryden was the British poet laureate from 1670 to 1689. John Locke Locke (1631-1704) was an English philosopher who wrote the essay â€Å"Concerning Human Understanding. † He believed that the only way a person could gain knowledge was through experience. Locke’s Two Treatises on Government promoted ideas about democracy. William Wycherley Wycherley (1640-1716) was an English dramatist whose works include Love in a Wood, The Country Wife, and The Plain Dealer. Samuel Pepys Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) was a government official and writer who lived in England. His famous Diary is an important source of the lifestyles and history of the English people. Aphra Behn Behn (1640-1689) was an English novelist and dramatist and the first female to make a living from her writing. Some of her works include Oroonoko, The Forced Marriage, The Rover, and The Lucky Chance. The Augustan Age (1700-1750), named for the Roman emperor Augustus, witnessed a return to the Latin literature of the ancient Roman Empire. British writers were influenced by the works of the ancient Roman poets Horace and Virgil during this era. Writers of the Augustan Age Joseph Addison Addison (1672-1719) was an English poet, essayist, dramatist, and member of Parliament. One of his well-known literary works was the poem â€Å"The Campaign. † Sir Richard Steele Steele (1672-1729) was an essayist and dramatist from Ireland. With Joseph Addison, he founded the journals The Tattler, The Spectator, and The Guardian. He was elected to Parliament and was later knighted. Two of his plays include The Funeral and The Conscious Lovers. Jonathan Swift Swift (1667-1745) was an Irish satirist who used Juvenalian satire to criticize the society of his day in Gulliver’s Travels. Some of his other works include A Tale of a Tub and A Modest Proposal. In 1694, he was ordained in the Church of England. Alexander Pope Pope (1688-1784) was a poet and writer of satire who was famous for his use of the heroic couplet in his writings. Some of his works include The Rape of the Lock, The Temple of Fame, An Essay on Man, and Moral Essays. Daniel Defoe Defoe (1660-1731) was a journalist who wrote Robinson Crusoe. Some of his other works include The True-Born Englishman, Moll Flanders, and A Journal of the Plague Year. he Age of Johnson, named for Samuel Johnson (an important figure in English literature in the late 1700s), lasted from 1750-1790. Writers of the Age of Johnson Samuel Johnson Johnson (1709-1784) was an English author famous for his Dictionary of the English Language, The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia, and The Lives of the English Poets. He is also remembered for forming a group of writers called the Literary Club. Oliver Goldsmith Goldsmith (1728-1774) was an English dramatist, essayist, poet, and novelist and was a member of the Literary Club. Goldsmith wrote the novel The Vicar of Wakefield. Other works include the poem â€Å"The Deserted Village† and the play She Stoops to Conquer. Edmund Burke Burke (1729-1797) served as a member of Parliament during the American Revolution. He supported the rights of the colonists and urged the British government to compromise with the American colonies. Some of his writings were critical of the French Revolution. Robert Burns Burns (1759-1796) was a Scottish songwriter and poet. Two of Burns’ better known songs are â€Å"Auld Lang Syne† and â€Å"Comin’ Thro’ the Rye. † James Boswell Boswell (1740-1795) was a Scottish author who wrote the biography The Life of Samuel Johnson. He was a member of Samuel Johnson’s Literary Club, and the two men traveled together. Boswell’s Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides is an account of one of their trips. Edward Gibbon Gibbon (1737-1794) was a leading historian whose most famous work was the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Thomas Gray Gray (1716-1771) was an English poet whose style was used by many of the Romantic writers. His most famous work was Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard. Olaudah Equiano Equiano (c. 1750 – c. 1797) was an African slave who was brought to the West Indies. He received some education and was later granted his freedom by his master. He was the first black to write an autobiography in England. He wrote The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African in 1789. Romantic Period (1790-1830) Romanticism is the school of thought and period of literature in which emotion, passion, and imagination are considered more important than reason and intuition more important than logic. During the Romantic Period, most writers were discontented with commercial, inhuman, and standardized conditions. Many Romantic writers portrayed people in unrealistic situations. To escape from modern life, the Romantics turned their interest to remote and faraway places, the medieval past, folklore and legends, nature, and the common people. Romantics glorified the individual and believed that people must be free from confining rules and able to develop individually. The Romantic novels described exciting adventures, unexplained events, and the evil influences of obsessions. Writers of the Romantic Period William Blake. Blake (1757-1827) was an English poet, artist, and prominent figure of Romanticism. Some of his works included Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. Blake created the illustrations in some of his books such as The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. William Wordsworth Wordsworth (1770-1850) was a Romantic poet whose literary works focused on the beauty of nature. He teamed with Samuel Taylor Coleridge to write Lyrical Ballads, marking the beginning of the Romantic movement. Other works include The Solitary Reaper and the autobiographical poem â€Å"Prelude. † Samuel Coleridge Coleridge (1772-1834) was a poet and philosopher from England. He coauthored Lyrical Ballads with William Wordsworth. His most famous works include â€Å"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner† and â€Å"Kubla Khan. † Percy Bysshe Shelly Shelly (1792-1822) was an English poet whose many poems contained political and religious themes. His works include â€Å"Ode to the West Wind,† â€Å"The Cloud,† and â€Å"The Skylark. † John Keats Keats (1795-1821) was a poet who focused on death, love, and beauty. His works include â€Å"Ode to a Nightingale† and â€Å"On a Grecian Urn. † Sir Walter Scott Scott (1771-1832) was a Scottish novelist and poet who became a lawyer in 1792. He was credited with creating the historical novel. Scott became one of the leading literary figures of his day. Scott’s works of poetry include â€Å"The Lay of the Last Minstrel,† â€Å"Marmion,† and â€Å"The Lady of the Lake. † His novels include Waverley, The Tale of Old Mortality, The Heart of Midlothian, Ivanhoe, The Talisman, St. Ronan’s Well, A Legend of Montrose, and Quentin Durward. Jane Austen Austen (1775-1814) was an English novelist who incorporated her observations of the manners and society of her time. Through dialogue and narration, she allowed her characters to be guided by common sense and traditional values. Her more famous works include Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice. Gothic novel Gothic novels use horror and medieval elements such as castles and dungeons. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, and Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights are examples of Gothic novels. Writers of Gothic Novels Ann Radcliffe Radcliffe (1764-1823) wrote The Mysteries of Udolpho and The Italian. The setting of most of her work involved innocent young women, dark mysterious castles, and nobles with secret pasts. Horace Walpole Horace Walpole (1717-1797) wrote The Castle of Otranto, considered by some to be the first Gothic novel, as well as over 4,000 published letters. Writers in the Victorian Period (1832-1901) wrote about the living conditions of the lower class. The Victorian Period was also marked by sentimental novels. The modern drama appeared toward the end of the Victorian Age. Writers of the Victorian Period of Literature (1832-1901) Alfred Lord Tennyson Tennyson (1809-1892) served as the poet laureate of Great Britain from 1850 to 1892. Some of his works include â€Å"Ulysses† and â€Å"The Charge of the Light Brigade. † Robert Browning Browning (1812-1889) used dramatic monologue in his writings. Some of his works include â€Å"Pippa Passes,† â€Å"The Pied Piper of Hamelin,† â€Å"Bells and Pomegranates,† and â€Å"My Last Duchess. † Anne Bronte Anne Bronte (1820-1849) was the youngest of the three Bronte sisters. Her novels include Agnes Grey and The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. Oscar Wilde Wilde (1854-1900) was an Irish author who published only one novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray. Wilde wrote many comedies, including A Woman of No Importance and The Importance of Being Earnest. Thomas Carlyle Carlyle (1795-1881) was a Scottish historian and essayist who criticized the laissez faire doctrine that allowed people to do as they pleased. His works include Frederick the Great. George Bernard Shaw Shaw (1856-1950) was an Irish dramatist and novelist and a member of the socialist Fabian Society. He wrote over 50 plays including Pygmalion and won the Nobel Prize for Literature. Edward Lear Lear (1812-1888) was an English artist and author famous for his limericks and children’s poems. Lear’s first publication was A Book of Nonsense, and his most famous children’s poem was â€Å"The Owl and the Pussycat. † Charlotte Bronte Charlotte Bronte (1816 – 1855) was an English author best known for her novel Jane Eyre. With her sisters Emily and Anne, she published poetry written depicting their childhood fantasy world. The poems were published under the male pseudonyms of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Emily Bronte Emily Bronte (1818 – 1848) was one of the English Bronte sisters famous for their literary style. Her only novel was the Gothic Wuthering Heights. Charles Dickens Dickens (1812 – 1859) gained fame as a writer of The Pickwick Papers. Many of his literary works were based on his life experiences and social conditions in England. His best known works include A Tale of Two Cities and Great Expectations. Pre-Raphaelite Poets The Pre-Raphaelite poets (named for the Italian painter Raphael) of the Victorian Age wanted to return the morality of the medieval era to the modern world. Dante Rossetti Rossetti (1828-1882) was considered a leading poet and painter in England during the 1800s. His poetry contained imagery and examples of symbolism, and his paintings included romantic scenes. His literary works included Sister Helen and The House of Life. William Morris Morris (1834-1896) was an English artist, poet, and social reformer whose work reflected an interest in medieval art and Gothic architecture. His works include The Life and Death of Jason, The Earthly Paradise, A Dream of John Ball, and News from Nowhere. Realism (1860 – 1914) Realist authors described life as it really existed. Writers examined and exposed the social, economic, and political problems of society using the dialect or language of the people. Realists saw the corruption of the Gilded Age and called for reform. They rejected Romanticism, which portrayed people in unrealistic situations. Mark Twain, Bret Harte, and Henry James were writers of Realism. Transcendentalism (1800s). Transcendentalism was a religious and philosophical movement in the early to middle 1800s. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) was the leader of the Transcendentalist movement in America. He believed that people could gain knowledge through the use of their intellect rather than from the experiences of their lives. The Transcendentalists rejected formal religious teachings. Naturalism Naturalists represented the extreme element of the Realism movement of literature. They believed that family history and environment were the main influences on the development of a person’s character and that people had no control over their fate. Political, economic, social, and heredity factors controlled the actions and fate of the people. Naturalist writers exposed the abuses and suffering of people in America. Upton Sinclair described in The Jungle, the plight of the workers in the meat packing plants in Chicago. Stephen Crane wrote about the sufferings of the soldiers during the Civil War in The Red Badge of Courage. Other Naturalist authors included Jack London, Theodore Dreiser, and Eugene O’Neill. Edwardian Period (1901-1910) This period of British Literature refers to the reign of Edward VII, the eldest son of Queen Victoria and her husband Albert. Edward was interested in the arts and founded the Royal College of Music. Writers of the Edwardian Period H. G. Wells Wells (1866-1946) was a novelist, historian, and well-known author of science fiction. His literary works include The Time Machine, The War of the Worlds, and The Shape of Things to Come. His Wealth and Happiness of Mankind addressed the social needs of people in general. Arnold Bennet Bennet (1867-1931) was an English journalist, novelist, and playwright. The film The Madness of King George was an adaptation of one of his plays. One of his most famous works was A Private Function. Rupert Brook Brook (1887-1915) was an English poet whose writings described the lives of people who suffered through the horror of World War I. One of his most famous works is The Soldier. John Masefield Masefield (1878-1967) was a novelist and poet laureate from England. His works of poetry include â€Å"The Everlasting Mercy,† â€Å"Dauber,† and â€Å"Reynard the Fox† and the novels Sard Harker and The Bird of Dawning. Modernism (1914-1945) Modernism was a literary and cultural movement that did not support the social, political, or economic values of the 1800s. Part of the reason for the movement away from the 1800s was due to the tremendous destruction and loss of life that occurred during World War I. The Modernist movement included art, philosophy, architecture, and literature in both Europe and America. Writers of the Modernism Period William B. Yeats Yeats (1865-1939) was an Irish playwright, poet, and dramatist who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1923. Some of his works include the poem â€Å"The Lake Isle of Innisfree† and the plays The Countess Cathleen and The Land of Heart’s Desire. Seamus Heaney Heaney (1939-) is an Irish poet whose work focuses on the politics and culture of Northern Ireland. Some of his works include The Spirit Level and Wintering Out and North. Dylan Thomas Thomas (1914-1953) was a Welsh poet who focused on the themes of religion, death, and love. His works include Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog and Adventures in the Skin Trade. Virginia Woolf Woolf (1882-1941) was an English novelist. Her literary works focused on social and economic independence for women. Her novels include Mrs. Dalloway, The Years, and Between the Acts. Wilfred Owen. Owen (1893-1918) was an English writer who wrote about World War I. His poetry focuses on the theme that war is not a glorious venture. His works include â€Å"Anthem for Doomed Youth. † T. S. Eliot Eliot (1888–1965) was an American born English poet and playwright and one of the leading writers of the Modernist period of literature. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948. Some of his work includes The Hollow Men, Ash Wednesday, Four Quartets, Murder in the Cathedral, and The Cocktail Party. David Herbert Lawrence Lawrence (1885–1930) was a novelist whose literary works focused on how men and women relate to each other. His most famous work was Lady Chatterley’s Lover. His other works include The Rainbow and The Studies in Classic American Literature. Siegfried Sassoon Sassoon (1886–1967) was a British poet and author who wrote about the experiences of World War I. Sassoon’s literary works include The Old Century and Rhymed Ruminations. Aldous Huxley Huxley (1894–1963) was an English poet and novelist. His novel Brave New World criticized how science was destroying the morals of English society. His other works include Those Barren Leaves and Point Counter Point. Post-modernism Period (1945 to the present) Post-modernism includes some values and beliefs of the Modernism period. Its literature rejects traditional values of society and supports the anti-novel form. George Orwell Orwell’s (1903-1950) writings reflect his distrust of government and political and social ideologies. His works include Nineteen Eighty-Four and the modern fable Animal Farm. Joseph Conrad Conrad (1857-1924) was a prominent British novelist of the Post-modernist period. Some of his works include Lord Jim and Under Western Eyes. Conrad was a naturalized British citizen, having been born in the Ukraine. James Joyce. Joyce (1882-1941) was an Irish writer who used the â€Å"stream of consciousness† technique. Some of his works include Ulysses and Finnegans Wake and the short story collection Dubliners. Katherine Mansfield Mansfield (1888-1923) was a writer from New Zealand whose pen name was Kathleen Beauchamp. Her works include The Garden Party, Bliss, and In a German Pension. Doris Lessing Lessing (1919- ) is an English novelist and author whose works focus on the role of women in politics and society. Some of her works include The Grass is Singing, Children of Violence, Under My Skin, and Walking in the Shade. Nadine Gordimer Gordimer (1923- ) is a South African novelist and short story writer. She won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1991. Her literary works include None to Accompany Me and The House Gun. Robert Graves Graves (1895-1985) was an English poet and writer. His autobiography, Goodbye to All That, describes the horror of war. Graves’ other work include I Claudius and Claudius the God. Kingsley Amis Amis (1922–1995) was a novelist and poet from England. His literary works include Lucky Jim, The Old Devils, The Riverside Villas Murder, The Green Man, and The Folks That Live on the Hill. Anthony Powell Powell (1905–2000) was an English novelist and playwright. His plays include The Garden God and The Rest I’ll Whistle. Powell’s novels include Afternoon Men, Venusberg, From a View to a Death, and Agents and Patients. Powell’s autobiography, To Keep the Ball, was written in four volumes from 1976 to 1982. Muriel Spark Spark (1918- ) is a Scottish novelist whose literary works include The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, A Far Cry from Kensington, and Aiding and Abetting. A. S. Byatt Byatt (1936- ) is an English novelist. Her literary works include Possession. The Shadow of the Sun, and Babel Tower. Martin Amis Amis (1949- ) is an English journalist and novelist. Some of his works include The Rachel Papers, London Fields, Night Train, and Henry Water. The information in this lesson will be a valuable resource for you in the study of different periods of literature. Remember that this lesson is only an overview of some of the authors and literary works produced in Great Britain during this time period. There are many other authors that made important contributions to the literature of this time period that were not discussed in this lesson.

Humanities Today Essay

For as long as humankind has existed so have art, music, architecture, literature, and philosophy. The University of Phoenix (2009) defines humanities as â€Å"an approach to study that emphasizes ideas and values through analysis of modes of cultural expression, philosophical and religious thought, and modes of human communication† (University of Phoenix, Week One Supplement). Gloria K. Fiero (2006) further defines humanities as literature, philosophy, history, architecture, visual arts, music, and dance (p. 4). Humanities impact daily life without many people being aware of their presence. What distinguishes humanities from other modes of human inquiry and expression is that they focus on ideas and values, not simply the production or result of an action. This paper will provide current examples of visual art, music, architecture, philosophy, and literature and analyze how they reflect current developments in politics, socioeconomics, and technology. Visual art can be, but is not limited to, painting, sculpture, and photography. Classic paintings by renowned artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Claude Monet, Vincent Van Gogh, and Pablo Picasso are still considered masterpieces in today’s society but are not enjoyed by the common population the way that graphic and digital art have in the past century. Graphic and digital technology have become the means by which visual art is to be viewed and cherished among the mass population in a way that has never been available in history. Today’s society has become focused on instant gratification. Changes are expected to be made in politics overnight, struggles in socioeconomics demand rectification within weeks (even though they took years to create), and advancements in technology feeds society’s dependence on better, faster, and stronger tools. Unfortunately, visual art has become victim to this need for instant gratification. No longer are single masterpieces created by the flow of an artist’s hands, shaping and molding art into a creation of his or her soul. Instead, art is generated digitally by the click of a mouse and a selection of color and size from a predefined chart. The art can then be mass-distributed and mass-produced around the world in the matter of minutes. The creativity is still there, but the love generated through the time and patience required to construct that art by hand is no longer there. With the flood of self-help books saturating the market, literature also reflects society’s need for instant gratification. Self-help books are a reflection of the current socioeconomic state in which everyone is looking for a way to better his or her life instantly. Politicians have indirectly supported this literary genre by focusing and promoting what is wrong in the country and in each other. For example, if a politician has shortcomings in his or her public speaking abilities, the opposing political party will ridicule that person publicly. Citizens who feel they also do not have strong speaking skills and fear being mocked may then be compelled to purchase a self-help book on public speaking. As technology has advanced, self-help books have become a wonderful tool for individuals struggling to learn how to use the newest electronic devices. One popular technology self-help series is the For Dummies books. The books began in 1991 with â€Å"DOS for Dummies† (Johnson, 2006, para. 3), but they have now sold over 150 million Dummies books in 39 languages. Many people have benefited from the simple, helpful language used in these books, but not all self-help books are created equal. Some self-help books offer a quick solution that often leaves individuals feeling worse than when they began. Striving for self-improvement is excellent; however, self-help books can sometimes do more harm than good. Music in today’s society can also do more harm than good when presented to an impressionable mind. Music has always been used as a means of creatively reflecting political and socioeconomic issues, but since the inception of the Rap and Heavy Metal music genres, discontent, anger, and frustration have become common and wide-spread in music over the past 50 years. Songs about drug use, suicide, murder, and rape and those that use explicit language are common in these two genres of music and have begun to permeate other forms of music. This reflects not only society’s discontent with the current political and socioeconomic state, but it also reflects society’s tolerance and acceptance of freedom of speech. The sound of music, the production of music, and the enjoyment of music have evolved as technology evolves. New sounds that have never been possible before are now available through technology. Music is now available anywhere through the use of an MP3 player or cell phone. No longer does a person have to stop and listen to a musician; music can be played at any time. This fills society’s need for instant gratification. Today’s architecture also caters to the on-the-go lifestyles of society. Bigger, stronger, smarter, and faster are all ideas and values visibly manifested in current architecture. The aesthetic appeal of a building has given way to designs which exploit opportunities to get the most for the money. A recent trend which reflects a change of political and socioeconomic initiatives is building environmentally-friendly structures. That means creating a building that produces little waste, uses alternative power solutions, and emits minimum greenhouse toxins. Advances in technology have made these structures possible; however, they cost additional money to construct, and businesses and individuals are charged more money to use them than a traditionally built structure. Instant gratification, the struggle for self-improvement, tolerance and acceptance, and the idea of making as much money as possible are all philosophies in today’s society. Each is reflected in art, literature, music, and architecture, but as a whole, they make up the philosophy of society through their ideas and values. Developments in politics, socioeconomics, and technology have all played a part in creating these philosophies, but they are visibly manifested in the humanities. One can only wonder how the current humanities will be viewed and analyzed 50 or 100 years from now. The examples this paper has provided of visual art, music, architecture, philosophy, and literature demonstrate how current developments in politics, socioeconomics, and technology are reflected. As politics, socioeconomics, and technology change so too will art, music, architecture, philosophy, and literature. They are a reflection of one another and intertwined in their evolution. References Fiero, Gloria K. (2007). The humanistic tradition (5th ed). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Johnson, Doug (2006, October). For dummies books are popular learning aids. Retrieved from http://www. voanews. com/specialenglish/archive/2006-10/2006-10-12-voa1. cfm University of Phoenix (2009). Week One supplement: Humanities Terminology. Retrieved from University of Phoenix, Week One, HUM102 – Introduction to the Humanities website.

“Analysis on Main Advantages and Disadvantages of...

â€Å"Analysis on main advantages and disadvantages of devolution and fiscal federalism: is a hybrid solution the cure?† All countries in the world, regardless their degree of development, size, complexity or their form of government, must tackle an important choice when it comes to decide how the power is distributed between the central government and the sub-national entities who exercise governmental functions at local level. The two possibilities at the end of the spectrum, i.e.: complete decentralization of powers to local bodies on the one hand and total centralization of administrative and fiscal powers in the central government on the other hand, are often not feasible since both entail downsides that could hinder the sound†¦show more content†¦Also, allowing local governments to collect taxes entails the creation of revenues that can then be used to increase the performance of the local economies, positively affecting companies operating locally. In fact, the proceeds from taxes now kept at local level will increase the disposable income of sub-national governments, allowing the latter to operate with less tight budget constraints and thus to reduce the fiscal burden applied to individuals and private companies, eventually inducing sounder local economic conditions and development. Moreover, the choice of allowing fiscal decentralization may strengthen horizontal competition amongst sub-national jurisdictions, which, in order to maximize their revenues, will try to attract more companies and wealthy individuals enacting favorable laws and applying different tax-rates, resulting in a better overall environment for the country as a whole. Still, it must be noted that greater competition definitely increases the pressure on local governments, which are now asked to develop and innovate in order not only to attract such proceeds stemming from taxes, but also to retain them, by continuously investing in welfare and creating an environment that is suitable for business activities. Furthermore, reducing the overall central government’s intervention (by means of fiscal transfers,